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An analysis of Thales the philosopher
The history of western philosophy has been in a constant state of flux. The ancient and the medieval era constitutes many different philosophical schools. This period is also significant as it is associated with the emergence of many notable philosophers, with many of their philosophical works still being studied till this day. Each school, with the help of their own specific discourse, can be credited to having brought upon a distinctive way of thinking, which would be different from other schools, in terms of philosophical activity. One of the most significant periods was the Pre-Socratic period, whose discourse can be regarded as revolutionary ( the explanation of this statement will be discussed throughout the paper). One of the most important philosophers that belonged to this period was Thales. This essay will attempt to explain how the philosophical works of Thales has changed the way we perceive the world and this essay will also show how Thales was the first philosopher to engage in a philosophy, that was both natural and scientific. According to Thales, everything in the world comprised of a single substance, which would be the originating principle. This substance, for him, was water. Thales also went as far as to say that the earth is superimposed on water and that it acts as a flat disk staying afloat on water. There are many interpretations as to how Thales came about this conclusion. In this essay, we will refer to the works given by Aristotle. He conjectures that “observation may have led Thales to this conclusion, "getting the notion perhaps from seeing that the nutriment of all things is moist, and that heat itself is generated from the moist and kept alive by it (and that from which they come to be is a principle of all things)” ( Copleston 1993, p.22). For Thales, even though water can be explained as the building block for everything ( as explained in the quotation above), water can also serve as the destroyer of things. For example, in the case of a plant, if it gets a sufficient amount of water, it will result in it growing into a healthy living thing. On the other hand, an overdose of water could potentially lead to the death of the said plant. What made his theory even more ingenious is that he also explains the existence of water across all three states- gas, liquid and solid. With water in its natural form being a liquid, Thales implied that the process of evaporation is evidence of air being a product of water. He also stated that if the process of freezing of water should be carried on further, the end result would be the solidification of water into the earth. Thus it would be right to suggest that “The only certain and the only really important point about Thales' doctrine is that he conceived "things" as varying forms of one primary and ultimate element.” ( Copleston 1993, p.23). As previously mentioned, Thales thought that the earth was a flat floating disk. He also attempted to explain the cause of all natural phenomenon through rational theories which did not involve any supernatural tendencies. This was a major paradigm- shift as before this theory it was customary to relate all natural phenomenon with anthropomorphic gods. For example, prior to Thales, in the event of an earthquake, the most reasonable explanation would have been that the Greek sea god, Poseidon, was angry, and thus he was the one who caused the earthquake. On the other hand, Thales concluded that the water which surrounded the earth must have crashed against it, thus resulting in an earthquake. Here we can see how Thales attempts to break away from the presupposition that forms around the causal relationship between anthropomorphic gods and natural phenomenon. This theory was carried forward by his pupils and his successors and has thus this theory has become axiomatic while explaining natural processes, both in philosophy and science. Thales can also be recognized as a hylozoist, as he believes that all matter has life. He also gave the example of a magnet, stating that even the magnet is alive as it can move iron. Thus the presence of movement indicates that the magnet ( matter) has life in it. Another statement that he is said to have spoken is “all things are full of gods”. Considering how Thales abandons the idea of relating gods to natural things and taking into account that we only have no primary text of his, the interpretation of the statement remains ambiguous. However, judging by the fact that both the magnet and the iron are things found naturally, we can assume that the movement of the iron being attracted towards the magnet can be interpreted as a natural energy and that there are many natural laws such as the afro-mentioned one in nature that offers an explanation on how something natural functions. In this way, the current interpretation collaborates with Thales’s notion of the rational hypothesis being used to explain natural phenomenon. As a conclusion, it is appropriate to say that “in Thales, we see clearly the transition from myth to science and philosophy, and he retains his traditional character sis initiator of Greek philosophy” ( Copleston 1993, p.24). REFERNECE- Copleston, Frederick. 1993. A History of Philosophy. Doubleday: New York
Kartik Mathur
An Eco-critical analysis of the documentary- ‘ An Inconvenient Truth’
‘An Inconvenient Truth’, directed by Davis Guggenheim, is an environmental film that was released in 2006. It features Al Gore, the former Vice President of USA, in a collection of clips from his slide-shows where he explains the consequences of global warming and what we can do to combat it. In this essay, I will analyse this cultural artefact from the Ecocriticism point of view. Here, I will first briefly discuss the genre of Ecocriticism and Ecocinema and then go on to consider the narrative structure of this film, its context, music and its communication style, which all contributed to making it one of the leading and most influential environmental statements of our times. Literature changes form and evolves over time. Accordingly, scholars have developed various literary theories at different times to analyse and help the lay reader understand and appreciate a text better. Formalism, Structuralism, Historicism, Feminist and Marxist literary theories…..are just a few of these. Over the past few decades, concern about the environment has come to the forefront of public consciousness. With rising urbanisation and industrialisation, not only are we moving away from nature, but are also increasing the burden on the environment. This trend led to the emergence of a new literary theory which explores the relationship between literature and the environment. The term “Ecocriticism” may be attributed to a 1978 essay by William Rueckert. His intention was to apply the concepts of Ecology to the study of Literature. The real ground work for the Ecocriticism movement was, however, laid by Rachel Carson’s 1962 Environmental expose “Silent Spring”. Ecocritics examine those literary pieces and works of art, which raise questions about environmental utilisation and exploitation, offer solutions to such problems and / or attempt to inform and enlighten the public about it. Ecocriticism as a discipline has a moral and ethical responsibility to promote those works of art that expose and address the damage done to the environment by human activities and suggest ways in which humans can live harmoniously within set limits that do not endanger the natural surroundings. It is a multi-disciplinary study, and during its short history, Ecocriticism has broadened its scope from Romantic Poetry to Nature Writing, from Scientific Journals to Films and Television. Ecocinema, the sub branch of Ecocriticism that emerged in mid 1990s, is also called Green Film Criticism or Eco-Film Criticism. It explores how the visual rhetoric and cinematic techniques of some films can highlight environmental issues or bring about awareness in their audience Films are a means of reaching a large audience and making them aware of environmental issues. In popular cinema, there are films that present nature as a simplified, idealised and sentimentalised backdrop to a happy family life. Several of Disney’s animated films fall in this category. Other films use environmental issues as a part of the plot or theme, eg., “Gorillas in the Mist” and “Erin Brockovich” where nature and its defenders are shown in a positive light. Yet other fictional films like, “2012” and “The Day after Tomorrow” use actual environmental problems to create an apocalypse like situation. All these kinds of films do showcase nature and ecological issues and guide the viewer towards empathy and understanding. However, environmental films are a powerful medium to disseminate information and knowledge about serious ecological issues, suggest ways to remedy the same and help shape public opinion. And it is here that ‘An Inconvenient Truth’ hits the mark spectacularly. Climate change is a serious environmental problem that has not come up in the public consciousness till recently, mainly because climate change and global warming are such ecological phenomenon that occur very slowly, almost imperceptive in human terms, and most people are not aware of the disastrous consequences of ignoring the warning signs. Al Gore’s film ‘An Inconvenient Truth’ takes on this challenge head-on and succeeds magnificently. Former Vice President of the USA and a keen environmentalist, Al Gore sets himself the task of bringing awareness of global warming to the world, one slide-show at a time, thousands of times. “I set myself a Goal. Communicate this real clearly. The only way I know how to do this, is city by city, person by person, family by family.”( Guggenheim 2006). This 2006 film is a compilation of these slide-shows, alongwith clips of Al Gore addressing live audiences interspersed with eye-catching visuals and scientific data. Gore begins with a brief explanation of how global warming occurs, discusses climate change theories and the co-relation between increase in carbon emissions and rise in global temperatures. He goes on to co-relate the effect of this rise in temperature on theweather worldwide and the major consequences we have faced as a result of global warming. He ends with an exhortation to the audience to stop global warming and offers suggestions on the steps an individual can take to do so. Throughout the 1 hour 36 minutes film, Gore comes across as deeply passionate and dedicated to the issue of global warming. His narrative style is blunt, honest and earnest. Hestarts his talk with self-deprecating humour by introducing himself as “I used to be the next President of America.” (Guggenheim 2006). For comic effect to explain the ill-effects of green house gases, he uses a clip from the “Futurama” episode “Crimes of the Hot”. The entire narrative is interspersed with personal anecdotes from his college days where his interest in global warming was inspired by his teacher, Roger Revelle, to his son’s serious accident, to his sister’s death from lung cancer even as his family farmed tobacco. These, alongwith his expressions of his disappointment at his shocking defeat in the 2000 Presidential election, work towards establishing him as a reliable and trustworthy narrator. Thus, when he talks about global warming and climate change, the audience is willing to listen and take him seriously. Without scientific proof and accurate data, no amount of impassioned speaking can be convincing. An environmental film has to face the dilemma of how to convey dry, hard scientific data to an audience who may not be receptive or knowledgeable. As it is, climate change is a gradual process talking place over thousands of years and the effects of melting ice caps in Antarctica may be felt in an entirely different region of the world. To counter these problems, ‘An Inconvenient Truth’ intersperses Gore’s talks with a variety of eye-catching visuals, animations, satellite pictures, charts and graphs. Time-lapse pictures of the vanishing snow on Mount Kilimanjaro, breaking up of the Larsen Ice Shelf and heart-breaking visuals of the aftermath of Hurricane “Katrina” bring the enormity of the crisis close to the audience. He also emphasizes that global warming“is really not a political issue so much as a moral one. If we allow that to happen, it is deeply unethical.”(Guggenheim 2006). Although widely acclaimed, ‘An Inconvenient Truth’ has been criticized on a few counts. Firstly, that it contains minor scientific inaccuracies and secondly, that Gore is pushing the global warming agenda to further his political ambitions. Notwithstanding the ambiguity in data from different sources the facts of climate change crisis are unanimously acknowledged. Al Gore says “Scientists have an independent obligation to respect and present the truth as they see it.” (Guggenheim 2006). He goes on to say that he has seen “Scientists persecuted, ridiculed, deprived of jobs and income simply because the facts they discovered led them to an inconvenient truth.” (Guggenheim 2006). The fact that he opted not to join the Presidential race again but continued advocating environmental issues disproves the second contention. The third criticism is that Gore is too corporate-friendly in the film. By saying that GM and Fords cars fail to meet China’s exacting emission standards and comparing them unfavourably to the hybrid cars of Toyota and Honda, is Gore trying to push these companies to adopt new technologies to make their engines eco-friendly? If so, what is the harm? It is evident that ‘An Inconvenient Truth’ ticks all the boxes deemed essential by Ecocritics for an environmental film to be considered praiseworthy. It is not really easy for the general public to differentiate between “natural” climate change and that caused by anthropogenic factors like increase in green house emissions. The film helps to educate its viewers about the causes and disastrous effects of global warming. Its presenter, Al Gore, is credible and trustworthy and his sincerity and zeal towards his mission is never in doubt. So the audience readily believes him when he says “We are witnessing a collision between our civilization and the Earth.” (Guggenheim 2006).He does dwell briefly on his political disappointments and berates American politicians’ poor track record in controlling global warming. At the same time, he exhorts the audience to force their governments to adopt eco-friendly policies and, if need be, join politics to bring about the change. The film emphasizes that combating global warming is not just a political issue, but a moral and ethical responsibility of all. The film ends leaving the audience energised and motivated to take small steps at an individual level to reduce their own carbon footprint. Apart from being a huge box office success, ‘An Inconvenient Truth’ won a slew of awards including two Oscars. Al Gore won the Peace Nobel in 2007 alongwith the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). The issues of climate change and global warming were suddenly pushed into the lime light. Drawing on movie goers rising awareness of environmental issues, several eco-documentary films as well as fictional “Apocalpse – is – Coming” movies were released. ‘An Inconvenient Truth’ was, controversially, included in school syllabi in several countries. So, the film had a massive impact worldwide. That is all very well. The question arises “How relevant is ‘An Inconvenient Truth’ today, more than a decade since its release?” In order to answer that, we must consider the state of the global warming crisis today. The World Meteorological Organisation of the UN 2018 report has presented details of the continuing increases in CO2 levels in the atmosphere, sea level rising at afaster rate as ice sheets melt, record hot oceans and the world’s glaciers retreating. In 2019, Tropical Storm “Idai”wrecked havoc in South East Africa, there have been warm winter temperatures in Europe, unusual cold in North America and searing heat waves in Australia. In 2018, Super Typhoon “Mangkhut” affected 2.4 million people and killed over 134, mainly in The Philippines. Over 1600 deaths were reported in Europe, Japan, and US because of intense heat waves and wild fires. Kerala in India suffered the heaviest rainfall and worst flooding of the century. It is evident that global warming is increasing at an alarming rate and causing catastrophes. At the same time there is continued growing awareness and concern about the issue. Various initiatives have been taken at a global level, news of which is heartening. The Kyoto Protocol (1997) has been succeeded by the Paris Agreement (2016), which aims to keep the rise in global temperatures to well below 2degree Celsius. Gore asks in the film, “Do we have to choose between the economy and the environment?” (Guggenheim 2006).Not necessarily. France plans to ban all petrol and diesel vehicles by 2040, The Netherlands by 2030 and Norway by 2025. After 2022, France will not use coal to produce electricity. Electric trains in The Netherlands are powered entirely by wind energy. Electric cars like Tesla Model S and Nissan Leaf are gaining popularity. Researchers from U.K. and Spain have identified an eco-friendly solid refrigerant to replace the toxic and inflammable hydro-fluro carbons that contribute to global warming when leaked into the atmosphere. The UN’s Earth Day on 22 April and World Environment Day on 5 June arecelebrated every year for awareness of environmental rights. Representatives from 33 countries met in Delhi in March 2019 to discuss policy changes governments must make inface of increasing disasters caused by climate change. On Earth Day, April 22 2019, India has pledged Rs. 480 crores to set up a Secretariat for Proposed Global Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure. All these are encouraging developments. “I have been asleep and I need to wake up now”, go the powerful lyrics of Melissa Etheridge’s Academy Award winning song which plays as the end credits of ‘An Inconvenient Truth’ roll. The global warming crisis is one of Man’s own making, and as Al Gore says, “The solutions are in our hands. We just have to have the determination to make them happen.”(Guggenheim2006). ‘An Inconvenient Truth’ will remain relevant until that happens. BIBLIOGRAPHY An Inconvenient Truth. (2006). [film] Directed by D. Guggenheim. Hollywood: Participant Productions.
Do ideas inaugurate world history
When exploring the question, ‘if ideas inaugurate world history’, we have to assume that this certain ‘idea’ belongs to a larger congregation of people with the same ideology. If there is a large assemblage of people who share the same motive to bring change to a particular systemin an attempt to overthrow it, we can say that this could be regarded as a revolution. Although this does not answer the aforementioned question, we can say that the emergence of ideas from revolutions inaugurate world history. In this essay, we will attempt to examine the above statement while taking examples of the Industrial Revolution and the French revolution. A revolution can be regarded as a mass social or political movement with the intention to overthrow or modify a previous regime with a new one. In the case of both the French and the Industrial Revolution, the common masses were actively involved. The mass struggle of the common people and the peasants against the aristocratic and elite classes in a revolution can be associated as a classic eschatological struggle between right and wrong, or good and evil. A revolution is mostly limited in a particular geographical location. What set the French and the industrial revolution apart was that the outcome of these revolutions brought upon a new world order. If we take the instance of the French revolution, the ideas and the politics that arose out of that period have been incorporated by the majority of the world. One of the ideas that emerged out of this revolution was that of liberty. During the latter years of the 18th century, there was material discontent and impoverishment in France. The worst affected were the common people. The result of this socio-economic crisis, in ordinary circumstances, would have been rioting but only for a short period of time. But, due to a large-scale convulsion that took place during France at that time, combined with propaganda and elections, a new political dimension was added to the people’s voices. On a political stage, with the backing of the masses, the idea of liberty became an expectation. The thought of liberty from hierarchal despotism was unheard of anywhere in the world at that time. Eric Hobsbawm puts it best when he says “They introduced a tremendous and earth-shaking idea of liberation from gentry and oppression“(Hobsbawm 1996, p. 61). Thus, we can say that the common people were drowned in the revolutionary rhetoric of liberty. It should also be noted that when we mean the notion of liberty was never unheard of before, it was meant in terms of slavery. Up until then, liberty was only used to describe in contradiction to slavery. Thus the common people gained a more legal interpretation of the term liberty during the revolution. Another political decree that has been adopted by many governments around the worldis that of popularsovereignty. As the common people have elected representatives to run their government, they are answerable to the people and that the government is sustained by the people. This decree was a major paradigm- shift in the political sphere. This is because,before the revolution, many kings claimed to have been chosen by God itself to rule, thus giving them a sense of divine power that cannot be challenged by anyone. This shift from ruling due to the backing of God to ruling due to the backing of the people was first seen during the French revolution. Hobsbawm informs us that “A constitutional monarchy based on a propertied oligarchy expressing itself through a representative assembly was more congenial to most bourgeois liberals than the democratic republic which might have seemed a more logical expression of their theoretical aspirations; though there were some who did not hesitate to advocate this also.( Hobsbawm , 1996, p.59) He also says that- No doubt the French nation, and its subsequent imitators, did not initially conceive of its interests clashing with those of other peoples, but on the contrary, saw itself as inaugurating, or taking part in, a movement of the general liberation of peoples from tyranny.( Hobsbawm 1996, p. 59) The prospect of overthrowing the king and establishing a constitutional monarchy was seen by many as the first step to establish a democratic or even an egalitarian society. The rise and fall of Maximilien Robespierreand the Jacobin club are examples of political sovereignty as the government was overthrown even after it was elected by the people. There are many other ways in which france influenced the world. Oen such instance is that of anti-clericalism. The separation of the state from the church was previously never experinecd before and thus due to this, many lands and holding that were in the power of the church were given back to the people. The church were also excempted from paying the tax when they occupied the lands, so this in fact made some more cash inflow for the common people. Another major area where the French influenced the world was through their indirect influence on various world political system. As previously mentioned, the ideaas of the French revolution were ecumenical. And such is the case that many of these ideas were later adopted into many of the political systems in the contemporary world. One such instance is that of communism. According to its theoretical doctrine, communism mans that the entire society should be owned by the community and the all the resources should eballocated according to the abilities of an individual, and not their status in the society. We can identify such a pettern emerging in the French revolution. Communsin calls for the overthrowing of capitalism, the same way the common people called for the eradication of the rigid and the old fashioned feudal laws. The emergence of the middle class also helped them allocate resources accordingly. The relevance of communism in the modern world is truly extraordinary. The main aim of the Bolshevik revolution was to overthrow the tzar authority and thus they implemented a communist society. The cold war, which was a war between communism and capitalism, which influenced the world politics of the eastern world, can also be noted to be one of the major indirect outcomes of the French revolution. China, which is a communist party, is a perfect example of the influence of communism in today’s world. If France influenced the rest of the world with its ideas and politics, then Britain influenced the world with its new economic structure and social framework. The industrial revolution was seen as a major breakthrough, both in the social and economic spheres. According to Hobsbawm- For the first time in human history, the shackles were taken off the productive power of human societies, which henceforth became capable of the constant, rapid and up to the present limitless multiplication of men, goods,and services. This is now technically known to the economists as the 'take-off into self-sustained growth'. No previous society had been able to break through the ceiling which a pre-industrial social structure, defective science and technology, and consequently periodic breakdown, famine,and death, imposed on production.( Hobsbawm 1996, p. 28) The industrial revolution brought upon a shift from the existent agrarian and feudal society to an industrial society. .As industries would require a lot of investment, in terms of both time and material, only the very rich were able to maintain industries. This new economic method, which involved private ownership of land and of the production with the sole motive of making a profit, would be known as capitalism. This method would go on to be adopted by much of Europe during the 20th century. The profit gained from a rapidly expanding economy would only increase through the process of mercantilism. The prospect of connecting Britain with the world market led to one of the most important inventions to come out of the revolution, which was the introduction of railways. This new railway system transformed the entire capital goods industries. Its ability to transport tons of goods and materials over a relatively short period of time was nothing short of remarkable. In fact- “No innovation of the Industrial Revolution has fired the imagination as much as the railway, as witness the fact that it is the only product of nineteenth-century industrialization which has been fully absorbed into the imagery of popular and literate poetry. Hardly had they been proved technically feasible and profitable in England (c. 1825-30), before plans to build them were made over most of the Western world, though their execution was generally delayed.”( Hogsbawm 1996, p. 44) “The reason was doubtless that no other invention revealed the power and speed of the new age to the layman as dramatically; a revelation made all the more striking by the remarkable technical maturity of even the very earliest railways.”( Hogsbawm 1996, p. 44) Not only did transportation become much more efficient, but the railways also opened Britain to foreign trade and investment. Although the expansion of the railway system to the rest of Europe happened much later on, it unquestionably opened the world to a new era of globalization. As we can see from this essay, the revolutions that occurred in France and Britain in the latter stages of the 18th century and the 19th century respectively played a key role in developing ideas that have made the modern world as it is now. We can also see how the enlightenment period that happened in Europe during that time helped to develop new political ideas. Thus, we can conclude by stating that even though a revolution might be restricted to a particular geographical location, the logic that was involved and the ideas that developed out of it do not fall under the same restriction. REFFERENCES- Hogsbawm, Eric. 1996. The Age of Revolution. Vintage Books: New York
Analyzing the ideas and the beliefs that emerged out of The French Revolution
A Revolution can be defined as a radical movement that has begun in order to bring change. This change mostly occurs when the main aim of a revolution is the eradication of an old or rigid regime, in favour of a new or modified system. When discussing revolutions, one name that always seems to have a permanent presence is the French Revolution. It can be said that the French Revolution is such a well known movement, that it almost has a hegemonic presence. One possible reason behind this could be that the French Revolution was ecumenical. This in itself makes this revolution stand apart from many of the other revolutions. For example - The American Revolution, while considered as one of the most important revolutions ever to take place, did not influence any other nations other than America itself and the nations it had direct relations with - which were France and Britain. The French Revolution, on the other hand, even though limited in a geographical sense, managed to influence much of Europe from 1780- 1840. Although that time period is known to be the home of the emergence of two major revolutions- The French Revolution and the Industrial Revolution ( often known as the dual revolution) , this paper will only focus on the French Revolution. As the revolution, in its totality, was a broad movement covering many aspects, here the focus will be only on the major ideas and beliefs that emerged out of the revolution. Some examples from the contemporary world will also be given, in order to explain the influence the ideas have had on the world. As previously mentioned, the ideas that emerged out of the French Revolution were extremely influential. According to Eric Hobsbawm, “ If the economy of the nineteenth century world was formed mainly under the influence of the British Industrial Revolution, its politics and ideology were formed mainly by the French.” ( Hobsbawm 1996, p.53) One of the major ideas that were predominant during the revolution was the tripartite motto- ‘ Liberty, Equality, Fraternity’. As these three terms set the basic foundation of the French Revolution, we will start by analzying these terms individually. The first idea to be analyzed is Liberty. It should be noted that each historical event needs to be studied within its historical context. Thus, it is important to know the background of the French Revolution before we start to interpret the ideas. France, at that time, was in deep economic crisis, and a series of bad harvests further worsened the situation. There was extreme malnutrition among the common folk. France’s international policy at the time should also be taken into consideration, as it had just been fiscally drained due to their participation in the American Revolution. A series of bad decisions on the behalf of the monarch, such as its involvement in someone else's revolution, turned the common people against the monarch. Thus, we can identify that the first step towards the revolution was through the idea of liberty from oppression from the nobles and the monarch. Although in normal circumstances, the most common way in which the general public approach such an idea is through looting and banditry. But this was a special scenario. Due to an unforeseen convulsion that happened in France at the time, the people found their voice to be heard through politics. Due to this paroxysm of propaganda and elections, the people could now express their opinions on a political stage. Due to the introduction of this new dimension, the people could now go against the nobles, with a certain civility being maintained, at the political stage. To say that the notion of liberty was never heard of before would be an overstatement. As previously mentioned, each historical event must be studied within its context. Keeping this in mind, one business that was quite common at the time was slavery. Thus, the interpretation can be made that the notion of liberty at the time was only used in contrast to that of slavery, and that it was only during the French Revolution, that the term was added to include a legal dimension. So, it can be said that the French were drowned in the revolutionary rhetoric of liberty. The second idea out of the famous tripartite is Equality. This term, in modern society, is something that we often take as a given, without fully understanding the relevance of it and how it came to be. As previously mentioned, the common people found a new way to counter the nobles by going against them through politics. One major idea that was formed during the revolution was the idea of a middle-class, or the bourgeoisie class. The creation of the fictional structure - The Third Estate, was one of the first steps towards gaining equality. The creation of the third estate was implemented to counter the existing first and second estates, which consisted of the clergy and the nobility respectively. The attempt of the third estate to dismiss the old feudal way of assigning votes per section (estate in this instance), instead of assigning a single votes to each individual, shows the determination and the want for equality. The first major breakthrough that the bourgeoisie attained was through laying down the Declaration of the Rights of Man And Citizen in the year 1789. The reason why this can be considered as a step towards equality is because in this manifesto, “Men are born and live free and equal under the laws, said its first article” (Hobsbawm 1996, p. 59) although when further analyzed it can be said that this particular manifesto did not offer what the lower classes wanted, which was a more egalitarian society. Thus, even though it may not mean equality in a utopian way, it was certainly an upgrade on the current situation of the public Equal representation in politics also implied that a change from the existing absolute monarchy was needed. It was then decided that the implementation of a constitutional monarchy would be undertaken. If studied within the context of the time, such a solution would be the most appropriate one. The reason why that is so, is because such a radical transition had rarely been accomplished successfully ever before. Thus, implementing a constitutional monarchy, where the powers of the monarch would be limited within a particular framework, would seem as the most rational and appropriate solution for such a major transitionv- “a constitutional monarchy based on propertied oligarchy expressing itself through a representative assembly was more congenial to most bourgeois liberals than the democratic republic which might have seemed a more logical expression of their theoretical aspirations” ( Hobsbawm 1996, p. 59) The above quote supports the previous argument. The relevance of equality in the contemporary world is widespread. There is still the question whether these words that were uttered then have the same meaning today as they did during that time. There are many instances from the modern world which shows signs of equality, especially in France. For example, the acceptance of immigrants in France can be one of the signs of equality for all. It should also be noted that France has the highest Muslim population in the western world. A sizeable number of the French population is also of African descent. Thus we can see equality in both race and religion. The last of the iconic tripartite motto to be analyzed will be the idea of Fraternity. Fraternity in itself means brotherhood. The term brotherhood can be used to denote a group of people who are together because of a common aim or goal. The idea of Fraternity is what fueled the common people, thus resulting in the mass social movement that we know the French Revolution to be. This sense of brotherhood can best be exemplified by the storming of the Bastille, which occurred on the 14th of July, 1789. The Bastille was a state prison. The bourgeoisie and the common people knew that they could not attack the nobles themselves as they were still relatively powerful. What is important to note is that, “ in times of revolution, nothing is more powerful than the fall of symbols.” ( Hobsbawm 1996, p.61) The same can be said for the Bastille as well. The Bastille, although it held only seven prisoners, symbolized everything that the common masses were against, which were hierarchal, despotism and oppression from the nobles and the monarch. Thus the seige of the Bastille, which was one of the largest organized movements within the French Revolution, was one of the key moments in the revolution which signified the eradication of enlightened despotism in France. The term Fraternity has gone through some changes, but it is still a very important concept today. The most common use of the term fraternity is used in universities to categorize certain clubs with their own beliefs. The term has been used in relation to describing a secret sect or a group of people. For example- the most well known of the afore mentioned sects are Freemasons and the Oddfellows, who have members all over the world. This is another instance of where an idea, gaining its popularity during the French Revolution, has its influence all over the world. Another major area where the French influenced the world was through their indirect influence on various world political system. As previously mentioned, the ideas of the French revolution were ecumenical. And such is the case that many of these ideas were later adopted into many of the political systems in the contemporary world. One such instance is that of Communism and Socialism. According to its theoretical doctrine, communism means that the entire society should be owned by the community and that all the resources should be allocated according to the abilities of an individual, and not their status in the society. We can identify such a pattern emerging in the French revolution. Communism calls for the overthrowing of capitalism, the same way the common people called for the eradication of the rigid and the old fashioned feudal laws. Through this itself we can see the emergence of the middle class or the bourgeoisie class. It can also be said that there is a certain hegemonic presence that is attached to it. It is also due to this superior presence that allowed them to allocate the resources according to their perspective. The relevance of communism in the modern world is truly extraordinary. The main aim of the Bolshevik revolution was to overthrow the Tzar authority and thus they implemented a communist society. The Cold War, which was a war between Communism and Capitalism, which influenced the world politics of the eastern world, can also be noted to be one of the major indirect outcomes of the French revolution. China, which is a communist country, is a perfect example of the influence of communism in today’s world. The last instance we will be analzying in this paper is how the sense and the belief of nationalism found a new voice during the French Revolution. There were many influential people whose voice influenced the common masses. The most famous of them was undoubtedly Napoleon Bonaparte. His military conquests done by him was not only to gain new territory, but to also spread the ideas that had emerged out of the French revolution. The effects of this were felt not only in Europe, but world-wide. For example- “ Ram Mohan Roy was inspired by it to found the first Hindu reform movement and the ancestor of modern Indian nationalism.” ( Hobsbawm 1996, pp. 54-55) In concluding remarks, it can be stated that the French Revolution was one of the most important revolutions in the history of the world. This was not only because it shaped the history of France, which at the time was one of the most powerful countries in the world, but also because that the ideas and the beliefs that emerged out of it were ecumenical and helped set the foundation for much of Europe and the contemporary world. REFFERENCES- Hogsbawm, Eric. 1996. The Age of Revolution. Vintage Books: New York
Write an essay on the idea of history and its significance in colonial culture.
The British wanted to establish colonial historiography in an attempt to establish their rule. One of the ways they did this was by denying and degrading the already present histories of India on the grounds that it did not conform to their already existing European view of how history should be. Then there were also British historians such as James Mill, who in his book History of British India claimed that the “backwardness can be remedied through appropriate legislation, which could be used by the British to change the stagnant nature of Indian society that had prevented its progress.”( Thapar 2002, p. 6). Irrespective of the fact that James Mill had not even visited India, his book became a trendsetter which influenced the westerners in their notion of India. There were also other theories such as Oriental Despotism and the Marxist notion of the Asiatic mode of production which portrayed India as having a single despotic ruler and also the lack of individual property. The British also thought of India a Hindu and Sanskrit civilization and thus did not consider other religions in terms of constructing Indian civilization. The British had also started to give colonial education to Bengali literati and were taught Indian history from the standpoint of the British. All this was done to create a loyal but submissive section of people. This portrayal of history provoked a serious reaction from the Indians who in turn reacted with the formation of a nationalistic approach to history and historiography. One of the reasons for this was to restore national pride and they also used this to spread anti-imperialist notions in an attempt for political integration. While James Mill’s book was ‘ the hegemonic textbook of Indian history’, “ for the first nationalist historians of India it represented precisely what they had to fight against”( Chatterjee 1994, p. 31). The first war of independence in 1857 also played a very important role as the nationalist history also brought forth the idea of a ‘glorified past’, in an attempt to unify the nation against the British. Due to the fact that the British mainly recognized the Hindu religion when taking India into account and barely even consider other religions, the nationalist history did not only have to deal with imperial misinterpretation in historiography, but also with communal bias in history. Even the Bengali literati who were educated by the colonials had rejected the history of India that was written by the British historians. One of the ways in which Indian history was portrayed was when “A dichotomy in values was maintained, Indian values being described as 'spiritual' and European values as 'materialistic', with little attempt to juxtapose these values with the reality of Indian society” ( Thapar 2002, p. 5). There is a clear fault on this from the British side, but the entire blame cannot be placed upon them that is because “ The first three books of narrative prose in Bengali commissioned by the Fort William College in Calcutta for use by young officials of the company learning the local vernacular were books of history.”( Chatterjee 1994, p. 5) and one of those books was Rajabali by Mrityunjay Vidyalankar. His book contains an account of the Rajas or the kings that had occupied the throne of Bengal and Delhi. According to Mrityunjay, all the rulers on earth were chosen by divine will and they will remain in that position as long as they acquire and retain the powers of dharma. As his book was being studied by British officials, their perception of India as being ‘ spiritual’ can be well founded. This could also have influenced many other historians to accommodate this view in their histories. Mitryunjay was writing down an account which at that time was in circulation among the Bahman literati. So we can say that his book Rajabali, is “ a good example of the historical memory of elite Bengali society as exemplified in contemporary scholarship” ( Chatterjee 1994, p.5). Through this example, we can see the complex relationship between the nationalist historiography and the histories that were produced by the British historians. As previously mentioned, the nationalists were using their ‘glorious past’ as a means of forming a national movement against the British. Due to some of the theories of the western perspective of India such as James Mill’s book History of British India, the notion of India as a backward, stagnant and unchaotic nation emerged which, as previously discussed, was widely used as a foundation for the perception of India by the west. This was not true as according to the nationalist historian Tarinicharan, “ although Europeans today treat Indians with contempt because of their degraded condition, Indians were not always like this, because even Europeans admit that the arts and sciences of ancient India were of the highest standard.” ( Chatterjee 1994, p. 29). All of these discoveries were of 19th-century Orientalists and thus this was very important for the construction of the nationalist history. There was another reason why the ‘glorious past’ was important. James Mill had periodized India as Hindu, Muslim, and British, in relation to Ancient, Medieval and Modern. The Medieval age was also the Dark Ages for the Europeans. Even though Indians were against the periodization, they had accepted that the concept of ancient India. Thus “ancient India had to become the classical source of Indian modernity, while the ‘Muslim period’ would become the night of medieval darkness. Contributing to that description would be all the prejudices of the European Enlightenment about Islam” ( Chatterjee 1994, p. 34) thus if the nationalist want to accept ancient India as glorious, they would have to accept the Muslim invasion as the main cause for the decline of their glorious past which could lead to the clash of different communities. There were some problems with the nationalist approach as it mostly focused on the glorified events and cultures of the Indian past but failed to recognize and also ignored the contributions of all people in the nationalist movement. This is because the educated Bengali literati now considered themselves as no different from the European bourgeois or the ‘middle class’. Thus they tried to act as a mediator between the elite class and the poor and the oppressed class. This is where the subaltern studies approach is important. This approach was important as it showed light in the lower sections of the society such as tribes, oppressed women and peasants that have been neglected in the history of a society. Thus he focused more on the common people instead of conforming to the imperialist approach or the nationalist approach, both of them who could be considered as prejudiced elites because the protagonist of a national history should be the people and not gods and kings. Thus the 19th century can be regarded as a very important period in which was very important in nationalist historiography writing as it was at this time when the British made distorted interpretations of history and it was the nationalist goal to refute them all these combined with the revolt of 1857 played a very important role in the construction of nationalist historiography. BIBLIOGRAPHY:- Chatterjee, Partha. 1994. Subaltern Studies. New Delhi: Oxford University Press Thapar, Romila. 2002. The Penguin History of Early India. New Delhi: Penguin Books
Analysing the historical misinterpretation of Lycurgus of Sparta, in relation to Stoic Ethics
Philosophy is a discipline that is spread across the world, with each country having their own philosophies. Even though that may be the case, there is still a hegemonic presence attached to the philosophies of Greece. Greek philosophy has a certain place in history itself, as most of the philosophical doctrines that have emerged out of it have been used as foundations for modern philosophies. Due to this, there is a vast existent discourse available on Greek philosophy. There are only a few of those texts which will be mentioned in this paper. Due to such extensive research being done on this epoch, it is only natural that there may be some problems and critique that must have arisen out of ancient and medieval Greek philosophy. For the sake of brevity, only one such problem will be discussed. The main text that will be used as a foundation for this paper is Frederick Copleston’s- A History of Philosophy. The reasons behind choosing this particular text will now be explained. There are two major reasons why Copleston’s text has been chosen. The first being that he has started the book by analysing the ancient Greek philosophers starting from the Milesian school, which is from 600 BC. The second reason behind this text being chosen is due to the quote in his book- “ The first point to be stressed is the need for seeing any philosophical system in its historical setting and connections. This point has already been mentioned and does not require further elaboration: it should be obvious that we can only grasp adequately the state of mind of a given philosopher and the raison d' etre of his philosophy if we have first apprehended its historical point de depart.” ( Copleston 1993, p.8) These two points will be further elaborated on in this essay. The problem that will be addressed in this essay will be related to Lycurgus, who was a Spartan philosopher who lived around 800 BC. The argument posed here is that he is the original founder and implementer of the Stoic Ethics. According to history, it was Zeno who was supposed to have implemented these ethics. This essay is an attempt to disprove that. The entire paper is divided into three sections. The first section will includes why and how the problem arose in the first place. This section also in some ways criticizes the works of both Plato and Socrates. The second section is an attempt to prove why Lycurgus should be considered as the main founder of Stoic Ethics. This will include some of my own personal research and also some other texts of authors who have a background in philosophy. The third section is an audacious attempt on how to avoid such problem in the future. Their points will be an analysis taken from the culmination of texts that are being used in this paper. The first section starts by introducing Zeno. He is said to be the original founder of Stoicism around 330 BC. In this paper, the main focal point is on the ethical part of Stoicism. It is also common knowledge that Stoicism has been heavily influenced by the works of Socrates. Here is where the first problem arises. Socrates, in himself, is surrounded by ambiguity regarding his existence, as we get to know most of his texts through the adaptations of Plato. In Greek philosophy, Plato and Socrates are considered to be the most well known philosophers of all time. Thus, it is very common that their texts be used as foundations and be considered as axiomatic for future generations. In this instance, the quotation that was mentioned at the start of the essay will come into place. According to Copleston, each philosophical system should be studied in its historical context. When further analysed, this ‘context’ includes any historical events that may have occurred at the time. As previously mentioned, Stoicism was heavily influenced by Socrates, and he existed around 470-399 BC. Plato, the philosopher who wrote his works, lived around 428 BC to 348 BC. During their time, there was a major civil war in Greece, between 431 BC- 404 BC. This war was called the Peloponnesian War, and it was fought between Sparta and Athens. It is important to note that both Socrates and Plato were Athenians while Lycurgus was a Spartan. When a war takes place between two or more states, it is not only a battle between military prowess, but also a war of ideologies and philosophies. The ethics of the Spartan states were implemented by Lycurgus. Due to the intensity of the war, it is natural that Socrates, who lived through the war, be influenced by it and thus incorporate some of the Spartan ethics and philosophies into his own works. As we have no first hand texts of his, and only adaptations by Plato, it could be possible that Plato may have understood the ‘borrowed’ philosophies as Socrates’s own, and thus represented it as Socrates’s own work. Due to the hegemonic presence that is associated with philosophers such as Socrates and Plato, it can be assumed that no one would attempt to contradict their works. It should also be noted that Athens at that time was the capital of Greece, and also the philosophical hub of the world. While Sparta, on the other hand, was a heavily miltarized State. So it is natural to make the assumption that the philosophical doctrines that emerged out of Athens would have gained more importance than those doctrines that came out of Sparta. As mentioned at the start of the paper, Frederick Copleston started his book by focusing on the 6th century BC philosophers, such as Thales and Anaximander which were of the Milsean schools. As this is common with most philosophers this method can be interpreted to mean that these authors don’t give the same importance to the philosophesr that existed before 6th century BC. This once again becomes a problem when we remember that Lycurgus was thought to have implemented his philosophies around 800 BC. Thus we can say that the philosophies of 6th century BC philosophers were given much more importance than to those of 8th century philosophers such as Lycurgus. The second section will be an attempt to explain the argument fro the perspective of Lycurgus. He is credited with introducing the Spartan ethics. Their ethics, in a summary, consisted of mainly believing that one should not feel emotion, one must live according to nature and thus not be influenced by outside factors. These in itself are quite similar to those of the Stoic Ethics. The Spartan society was a highly military one, where the sole purpose of the entire society was to create invincible warriors. I will now provide some instances which shows the similarities between the Spartan Ethics and the Stoics Ethics. According to Bertrand Russsel, in Sparta, young boys were taken away at the age of seven from their mothers and families and they were all put in a boarding school where they were trained to be warriors. ( Russell 2004, p. 106) what Russell failed to mention was that this precedure is called the Agoge, which was around for hundreds of years prior to Plato’s birth. Due to such intensive training, it is only natural to assume that the warriors that would emerge out of this training would be hardened men, and would not be susceptible to any outside emotion. It is not only men who were trained to be emotionless. Women in Spartan societies were also meant to show no emotion. for example, as previously mentioned, their children would be taken away at a young age and be trained as a soldier. The mother of the child was not allowed to cry or show any emotion when either the child was taken from her, or if it was reported that the child had died, which was a common occurence in the training camps. Such determination was shown my both the genders hundreds of years prior to the official formation for the stoic school of philosophy. another important point that needs to be mentioned is that no Spartan was allowed to leave the state, except for war, and likewise, no foreigner was allowed to enter Sparta. Thus it is highly unlikely that there would be any other sources other than Socrates who would have written about the Spartan society, as no common man was allowed to come and go as he pleased. According to Anthony Kenny, “ Moreover, the Stoics believed that it was praiseworthy to die for one’s country: but is not that preferring an outer circle to an inner one?” ( Kenny 2004, p.282) This goes along with the Spartan ethics that one should always be ready to die for one’s country. Russell makes a very similar comment on the spartans- “The sole purpose of a Spartan citizen was war, to which he was trained from birth” ( Russell 2004, p.100). here we can see the stark similarity between the ethics of both the stoics and the Spartans. it should also be noted that these two quotations have benen taken from two different authors, thus making it clear that they may not share the same opinion. Due to the above arguments, we can make the conclusion that Lycurgus was the original founder of the Stoics Ethics, and due to some misunderstanding, they were interpreted to be the teachings of Socrates and Zeno. The third and the last section will focuses on the possible solutions that can be made to avoid such a problem in history. One way in which such a critique can be avoided is by not considering Socrates and Plato and their works as axiomatic. That is because if we do consider them as superior to others, then we may form a biased opinion of the other philosophical doctrines coming out of minor areas within Greece such as the afore mentioned Sparta. Their hegemonic presence might be considered as permanent in Greek philosophy, as there are already certain periods named after them, such as the pre-Socratic era. Thus, in order to avoid such a problem in the future, one must study these philosophical doctrines with an open mind and an unbiased opinion. The second way in which one might improve their methodologies is by taking into consideration some of the historical events that may have occurred during the time of study. Such a problem can be identified in this paper, where the Pelopponesian War has played a huge part in determining the philosophy and ethics of a particular state. But due to those wars being considered as a part of history and nothing to do with philosophy, the historical events are often overlooked. If we can avoid these in the future, many such philosophies may emerge to be false, or atleast be influenced by some other historical event. Another reason why this might be helpful is so that more than one city-state in Greece might be considered as being philosophically explorative, and not only Athens. As a concluding remark, it is fair to say that the epoch of ancient and medieval Greek philosophy can be considered to be the most famous and popular philosophical period as compared to the rest. This is due to the doctrines emerging from them and due to the superior presence of Plato and Aristotle. The arguments posed in this paper sought to address only one major problem, with that being giving an equal historical representation to each philosophy within its historical context. The arguments that were posed in this paper were original and while many texts were used in this paper, all of them show the same problem, which is that they are not considering the philosophies of previous generations prior to 600 BC. BIBLIOGRAPHY Copleston, Frederick. 1993. A Hisotry of Philosphy. New York: Doubleday Kenny, Anthony. 2004. Ancient Philosphy. New York: Claredon Press Bertrand, Russel. 2004. History of Western Philosophy. London
In which ways do you think these different schools of Indian historiography could be faulted for ‘common elitism’?
There are various approaches that comprise Indian historiography. Some of these approaches are the nationalist, imperialist, communalist, the Marxist, and the Cambridge school of thought. The ways in which these diverse schools share a ‘common elitist approach’ is due to the fact that historians of these schools consisted of the middle class that was educated by the British. This statement is supported by Sumit Sarkar, who says that “ The basic pattern was of an English-educated ‘ middle-class’ reared by British rule, engaging in various renaissance activities, and eventually turning against their masters and so giving birth to modern nationalism- out of frustrated selfish ambitions, ideals of patriotism, and democracy derived from Western culture, or natural revulsion against foreign rule, the imputed motive in each case depending on the viewpoint of the scholar” ( Sarkar, p. 4). As we will see in this essay, another way in which these schools share a common elitist approach is because all of them are targeting the common masses of the Indian population. We will be looking at the approach of the Cambridge school of thought through the works of Anil Seal. He emphasized the notion that there were competition and collaboration among the Indian elite at the time. They were in competition amongst themselves as they all jockeyed for a higher position of authority, while at the same time they collaborated with the British in an effort to make that happen, thus creating vertical alliances rather than horizontal alliances. We get to know this as Anil Seal informs us that “What seems to have decided political choices in the localities was the race for influence, status, and resources. In the pursuit of these aims, patrons regimented their clients into factions which jockeyed for position. Rather than partnerships between fellows, these were usually associations of bigwigs and followers. In other words, they were vertical alliances, not horizontal alliances.” ( Seal 1973, p. 323) What Anil Seal is emphasizing when talking about vertical alliances over horizontal alliances is that alliances were not formed amongst the same class, such as landlord with the landlord, or educated with educated, but were instead formed across classes such as Brahmin with non-Brahmin, and educated with not educated. The Cambridge school also laid focus on the idea that the main motive behind the leader of the nationalist movement was not patriotism but were instead thoughts that were selfish and concerned only the elite themselves and not the masses. Sumit Sarkar clearly states that- “ The further assumption that patriotism was no more than a rationalization of extremely narrow and selfish motives like job frustration created a picture not to different really from that drawn by…..”( Sarkar, p. 5) and “ The leaders of the movement, that is to say the people who created it require a careful analysis, for in their ambitions must lie its causes.” ( Sarkar, p.7) Valentine Chirol was a historian who wrote about Indian nationalism through the imperial perspective. According to him, imperialism in India brought about a transition in an attempt to shift the society from a traditional society to a more modern one. He also mentions that the already educated class will readily accept that so that they could not fall back into their barbaric society. We get to know this as Chirol says “ European science and literature flourished in the great cities of the East, where the educated classes willingly accepted and supported foreign rulership as their barrier against a relapse into barbarism” ( Chirol 1910, p.V11) Chirol also talks about how the imperial Raj found ‘its own principles perverted against its efforts’ in an attempt the show the betrayal of the English- educated middle class who turned against them and used their new found education and knowledge to influence the masses into turning against the British. The imperialists also had a very negative view of the Indian National Congress who, according to them, represented only one class- the western educated middle, and not the entire Indian population which they claimed to represent. Also, they could not even be called national in the western democratic sense as there were millions of Indians whom they regarded as untouchables and thus there could not have been popular representation in India as long as the caste system still existed. The imperialists were also supportive of the depressed castes as, according to Chirol, “the depressed castes will probably find, as in the past, their truest friends and best qualified representatives among the European members of Council, who, just because they are aliens, are free from all the influences, whether of interest or of prejudice, which tend to divide Hindu society into so many water-tight compartments” ( Chirol 1910, p.177). Christian missionaries were also brought so that they couldn’t convert these people to Christianity. By doing so, it would have resulted in the benefit of both the sections. It would give the ‘untouchables’ a proper status and would find representation which they previously could not under the Indian National Congress. It would also benefit the British as converting millions into Christianity would give them an advantage over their Indian counterparts. Indian Marxists historians have placed the blame for India’s backward economy during the 19th century on the British. The establishment of the East India company has been credited with the start of an era of mercantilism. The term mercantilism has been used here due to the exploitative nature of the British on the Indian handicraft industry. They developed a market for Indian goods and thus brought Indian handicrafts at throwaway prices and sold them at higher prices in order to spend their own capital interests. With the industrial revolution happening in the west, and with the introduction of the mill, this could also be interpreted as a way to introduce capitalism to India. This process is also known as ‘The Drain of Wealth’. Historians such as R.P Dutt and Ramesh Chandra Dutt realized this and thus popularized this notion of the Drain of Wealth to the educated circle. Thus the educated class and the already exploited artisans became more motivated and joined the nationalist movement. Thus the Indian Marxist historians took up a stance not so different from the nationalists. One of the weaknesses of the nationalist movements was that it failed to attract the masses. This was because many of the Indian elites thought that every Indian thought of the British Raj as alien and thus wanted them gone. Even though the imperial Raj was exploitative, the local landlord and the regional elites were also quite exploitative of the lower strata of society. Thus the lower sections of the society were not only against the British but were also against the local landlords. Also, in the early 20th century, the colored glass of communalism began to show its true colors. After noticing the communal divide between Hindus and Muslims, the British adopted the ‘ Divide and Rule’ policy and sought to deepen the already existing wound. Thus even they started supporting the minority Muslims. Thus, what all these schools of modern historiography have in common and what the term ‘common elitism’ denotes is that all these schools comprised of influential and educated middle-class Indians who viewed the nationalistic movement and its historiography as ‘History from above’ more ‘History from below’. REFERENCES Sumit, Sarkar. Modern India: 1885-1947. Pearson Seal, Anil. 1973. Imperialism and Nationalsim in India: Modern Asain Studies. 7: pp.321-347 Chirol, Valentine. 1910. Indian Unrest. London: MacMillan and Co., Limited
Discuss the impact of communal politics on Mughal historiography.
The Mughal period is a very important part of the rich history of India. Looking at such a period objectively is the only way we can truly learn about the Mughal empire. This is not always the case as there are times when an individual has pre-conceived notions due to their religious beliefs and that affects their judgment as they are no longer unbiased. My argument is supported the by Nurul Hassan who says that “ Only too often there is a tendency to look at the history this period through the colored glasses of communalism” ( p.25, Religion, State, and Society in Medieval India, Nurul Hassan). An example of this instance is how numerous western historians have tried to study Mughal Historiography. Due to the fact that Indian history has been riddled with conflicts between Hindus and Muslims, including the partition of 1947, many westerners may use that as a foundation when going through Muslim historiography. The previous is supported once again by Nurul Hassan as he so rightly mentions that “ It was hoped that with the end of British rule in India, the imperialist attempt to present medieval Indian history as a story of an unending struggle between different communities would also end ( p.27, Religion, State, and Society in Medieval India, Nurul Hassan). Thus, we can say that a communal outlook mixed with pre-conceived notions is a very dangerous combination. The Mughal Empire was one of the grandest empires in its day and thus it was common for foreign travelers to visit the country. The written works of these travelers are also very important for us to learn more about the Mughal Empire. But what happens when even these travelers are biased in their opinion? This was also a very real problem as “ it is not always easy to judge how far their statements have been colored by their political, religious or social prejudices, or their sources of reliable information (p.34, Religion, State, and Society in Medieval India, Nurul Hassan). It is also very hard to distinguish whether what the statements that the travelers wrote were of their own personal opinion or that they were facts. Thus a lot of material has been lost due to the beliefs of individuals. All of the above claims can also be supported by the fact that some of the Mughal rulers actually strived towards making a multi-cultured environment in their courts. An example of this is Akbar’s relationship with the nobility and how “ Akbar had succeeded in removing the dependence of the sovereign on the Muslim nobility alone” ( p. 64, Mughal India, M. Athar Ali). Also, Akbar’s marriage to the Rajput princess Jodha was a religious and a political move as it would have helped in the unification of the two religions and it also would have reduced communal violence. Through the written record of the time, we have also come to have known of the Mughal policy of ‘ Sulal Kul’, which meant for the peaceful coexistence of communities and it has often been credited for being a key factor of the vitality of the Mughal empire.
Vaisesika school and Sankhya school
In Indian philosophy, both the Vaisesika school and the Sankhya school have their own concepts of Guna. In this essay, we will compare and contrast these concepts in order to find the similarities and the differences that exist. According to the Vaisesikas, “ A quality or guna is defined as that which exists in a substance and has no quality or activity in itself” ( Chatterjee and Data 1948, p.265). They recognize 24 different types of gunas or qualities such as color, taste, smell, touch etc.. On the other hand, according to the Sankhya school, guna here means “ a constituent element of the component and not an attribute or quality.” ( Chatterjee and Datta 1948, p. 299). They only recognize 3 kinds of gunas- sattva, rajas and tamas. The reason why they are called gunas is “ either their being subservient to the ends of the purusa which is other than themselves, or their being intertwined like the three strands of a rope which binds the soul to the world.” ( Chatterjee and Datta 1948, p.299) The Sankhya recognize two kinds of ultimate realities- spirit and matter ( purusa and Prakriti). Prakriti is constituted by the three gunas of sattva, rajas, and tamas. Thus we can say that that “ by the gunas of sattva, rajas, and tamas we are to understand the elements of the ultimate substance called Prakriti.” ( Chatterjee and Datta 1948, p. 299). One of the differences between these two concepts of gunas is that in the Vaisesika school, guna cannot have a quality in itself, while in the Sankhya school, each of the three gunas has qualities of their own. As qualities or gunas can only exist within a substance, according to the Vaisesikas, and as the Sankhya believe that qualities exist in the three gunas, we can say that from the view of the Vaisesika, the three gunas in the Sankhya school would be considered as substance. As things do not possess guna, it merely signifies the manner in which a substance reacts. Also, for the Vaisesikas, “ a quality is an unmoving or motionless property of things” (Chatterjee and Datta 1948, p.266). Guna for them can also be said as passive and inactive. This is different from the Sankhya as another characteristic of the gunas for them is that they are constantly changing and are always in a state of flux and thus do not remain stagnant. Although the three gunas keep changing, sattva guna and tamas guna are inactive and motionless in themselves. It is only through rajas guna that both sattva guna and tamas guna are able to perform their actions. Another characteristic of the triguna ( sattva guna, rajas guna, tamas guna) is that all three of them co-exists and cooperate amongst themselves in order to produce objects to the world. All the three gunas always go together and thus cannot be separated. None of them can produce objects without the help of the other two gunas. Another fact that needs to be mentioned is that all of the three gunas posses qualities that are different from the other. For example, the oil, the wick, and the flame are all important components for a candle to function. In this case, the wick, the oil, and the flame can be considered to be the different qualities of the gunas and yet they still come together to produce objects ( the candle). On the other hand, this kind of cooperation and cohesion does not exist amongst the gunas as they do not need to depend on another guna or quality to perform their functions but they still need a substance as they cannot exist on its own. For example- if I say ‘ that car is near’, then I am implying the quality of nearness or aparatava and thus don’t need any other qualities like taste or rasa. Another difference is that in the Sankhya philosophy, “ the gunas are not perceived by us. They are inferred from the objects from the world which are their effects.” ( Chatterjee and Datta 1948, p. 299). We can say this as we know the nature of the guna from the nature of their products as there is a relationship between the cause and the effect. This is different from the gunas under the Vaisesika there are some qualities such as sparsa or touch, and sabda or sound that can be perceived and not necessarily inferred. REFERENCES- Chatterjee, Satishchandra and Dheerendramohan Datta. 1948. An Introduction to Indian Philosophy. University of Calcutta: Calcutta.
Analyzing the elements of a realism present in ‘The Secret of the Nagas’
The ‘Shiva Trilogy’, written by Amish Tripathi, is a set of three novels depicting the rise of Shiva, from a normal tribal chieftain, to Shiva being the Neelkanth, the destroyer of evil. Due to the fact that most of the characters in the novels are embedded in Indian mythology, the genre of the set of books is categorized as mythology-inspired fiction. Although that may be the case, Tripathi has attempted to demythologize many key aspects of the myth in order to make it more realistic. In this essay, we will be exploring some of the instances where the author has attempted to relate the myth of Shiva in a realistic context, in relation to the ‘Secret of the Nagas’, which is the second installment of the Shiva Trilogy. The first instance in this essay where Tripathi has attempted to portray the myth in a realistic context is the representation of Sati’s and Shiva’s son Ganesh. In the book, Ganesh is shown to be a ‘Naga’, a race of people who are physically deformed. The description is given by Sati when she saw his face for the first time was- His nose was abnormally long, stretching out like the trunk of an elephant. Two buck teeth struck out of the mouth, one of them broken. The legacy of an old injury, perhaps. The ears were floppy and large, shaking of their own accord. It almost seemed like the head of an elephant had been placed on the body of this unfortunate soul. ( Tripathi 2011, p. 119) From the above quotation, we can see how the term ‘elephant’ has been used to describe the face of Ganesh. In the actual myth, Shiva cuts of the head of Ganesh after he is refused to by him to enter the room where his mother is taking a bath. After realizing his mistake, he places the head of a baby elephant in place of the already severed human head. Thus, Ganesh is always portrayed in Indian mythology as a god with an elephant head. Amish Tripathi has attempted to demythologize this myth by assessing the cause of this phenomenon as a physical deformity as compared to it being the result of a godly action, in order to make it more realistic. Thus the last sentence in the quotation is, in fact, a clever way of denoting this transition. Also, the history of the Nagas as being abandoned by their parents due to their physical deformities is in some way an allegorical representation of the current society, where many parents seemingly choose to abandon their babies who had developed a physical disability. One feature that is predominant throughout the book is the usage of colloquial language . What sets this book apart from other mythology-inspired books is some of the phrases that were used in the book could be regarded as anachronistic. For example, the phrase ‘Holy lake’ or ‘by the holy lake,’ is used throughout the novel. This phrase has been used by Shiva right before a thrilling encounter or event, such as- By the Holy Lake, I finally have him ( Tripathi 2011, p. 15) In the contemporary world, the word ‘holy’ is used as a prefix for mostly a curse word, which is commonly used by people, especially the youth. Shiva also uses phrases such as ‘bloody hell’. This could have been an attempt by Tripathi to make the book more appealing to the younger generations. Another instance where a relatively modern colloquial phrase has been used is when Kali addresses Sati- ‘Stop playing innocent, you daddy’s spoilt little girl!’ shrieked a strong feminine voice from behind ( Tripathi 2011, p.119) Here, the phrase in question is ‘daddy’s spoilt little girl’. The inclusion of the word ‘daddy’ in itself is quite perplexing. That is because that word is also relatively modern and is more importantly of western origin. And so, the inclusion of such a word definitely throws away the reader's perception of the book being about mythology and more related to contemporary society. Even though the inclusion of such phrases may invite some criticism, there are many instances where Tripathi has cleverly accommodated certain words, in order to describe an event or a dialogue better- ‘I asked you to do just one simple thing,’ hissed the Queen. ( Tripathi 2011, p. 37) The above quotation is spoken by the Naga queen, Kali. Naga in English translates to a snake. Snakes are also generally identified by their ‘hissing’ sound. Thus, Tripathi has cleverly used the word ‘hissed’ to associate this speech act with the Naga queen, or the Snake Queen. Another way in which this book was made to be more suited to a more realistic society was the inclusion of scientific terms and technology that was far ahead of their years- ‘It’s a very simple science really. The science of radio waves. ( Tripathi 2011, p. 61) ‘It’s a machine,’ said Shiva. ‘Divodas had told me about some accumulator machines, which store the energy of various animals over hours and then release them in seconds.’ ( Tripathi 2011, p. 87) Through the above quotations, it is visible that some scientific terms such as ‘radio waves’ clearly don’t belong to this period. It should also be noted that in medieval societies, especially in Indian societies, more emphasis was given on gods and thus science wasn't given much credibility. Also, the description is given by Shiva of ‘accumulator machines’, describes most of the machines in the modern world, which would not be available in the medieval or even the mythological world. Through the above instances, it is visible that Amish Tripathi, in his book, ‘The secret of the Nagas’, has chosen to demythologize certain myths in order for the book to be considered in a more realistic setting. He has also chosen to dehumanize certain characters so that they would no longer appear to be gods and thus would be more relatable to common people. REFERENCES- Amish, Tripathi. 2011. The Secret of the Nagas. Westland: New Delhi
The Shiva Trilogy
The Shiva Trilogy, written by Amish Tripathi, is one of the best examples of ‘Mythology-inspired’ fiction in English from India. This genre is generally inspired by Indian epics such as The Mahabharata and The Ramayana, as well as from folk traditions all over India. According to Emma Dawson Varughese, Indian ‘Mythology-inspired’ fiction is characterized by four different approaches. The following are the second and the fourth approach given by her- 2nd approach- Narratives that are recognizable by the ‘original’ epic inspiration, but where plot, characterization, and story arc are developed anew by the author. Examples include Tripathi’s ‘Shiva Trilogy’ and his ‘ Ram Chandra’ series. (Dawson 2019, p.146) 4th approach- Narratives that take only a character or an aspect of the plot from the epics through which they considerably develop the story away from the ‘original’ epic inspiration, moving further into the realm of re-imagining the epic ( inspiration). These narratives usually employ contemporary subgenres such as detective/crime fiction or speculative fiction and devices such as the conspiratorial. Examples include the novels of Ashwin Sanghi, Shatrujeet Nath’s The Guardians of the Halahala, and Doyle’s The Mahabharata Secret. ( Dawson 2019, p.146) Here we can see that she has categorized the ‘ Shiva Trilogy’ in the second approach. The main reason behind this categorization probably being how the mythological character of Shiva is being portrayed in a different re-telling of the myth. Although that may be a viable reason, we can see how ‘The Immortals of Meluha’, the first part of the trilogy, anchors many elements of contemporary genres. In this essay, the main argument we will be analyzing is why the ‘ The Immortals of Meluha’ should belong in the fourth approach rather than the second approach. This novel can be considered to have elements of Historical fiction. Instead of portraying mythological characters such as Shiva and Ram as gods, Amish Tripathi has instead humanized them, in order to fit them into a historical background. Thus, at the very start of the novel, he provided us with a historical context- 1900 BC, Mansarovar Lake (At the foot of Mount Kailash, Tibet) ( Tripathi 2010, p. 1) Tripathi's also uses the abbreviation- B.C, throughout the novel, allowing us to formulate a specific time period of when these events might have happened. While introducing new places or kingdoms in the novel, he also specifies their location in reference to places that are known today. For example, right before introducing us to the kingdom of Meluha, he informs us of its geographical location - After marching continuously for four weeks, the caravan of invited immigrants crested the final mountain to reach the outskirts of Srinagar, the capital of the valley of Kashmir…..But nothing could have primed him for the sheer spectacle of what certainly was paradise. Meluha . The land of pure life! ( Tripathi 2010, p.5) Another example of him historicizing the novel is- The convoy’s next stop was the famous city of Mohan Jo Daro or the Platform of Mohan ( Tripathi 2010, p.97) MohenJo- Daro was one of the first and the largest settlements of the ancient Indus Valley civilization which existed around 2500 BC. Thus we can say that he was using Mohenjo-Daro in an effort to periodize the locations and the characters in the novel as belonging to an ancient era. Tripathi himself, in the pretext of this novel, acknowledged the fact that he was in fact combining mythology with history- That is the premise of the Shiva Trilogy, which interprets the rich mythological heritage of ancient India, blending fiction with historical fact. ( Tripathi 2010) Another distinctive feature in the novel was how Meluhans were way ahead of their time. There are many references in the novel which suggest that even Shiva was amazed at the technological and medical superiority that the Meluhans possed as compared to the rest of the world. There are examples of such instances throughout the novel, such as when Shiva was asked to take a bath- The bathroom felt strangely constricted. He turned the magical device on the wall to increase the flow of water. He used the strange cake-like substance that the Meluhans said was a soap to rub the body clean. ( Tripathi 2010, p.11) Another example is of when Nandi, one of Shiva’s colleague, was drowning and to save his life, the Meluhan doctors performed CPR on him - The emergency staff then began a strange procedure. One of them started pressing Nandi’s chest in a quick rhythmic motion to the count of five. The moment he would stop, another emergency staff would cover Nandi’s lips with his own and breathe hard into his mouth. Then they would repeat the procedure all over again. Shiva did not understand what was going on but trusted both the knowledge as well as the commitment of the Meluhan medical personnel. ( Tripathi 2010, p.19) The above-mentioned examples are relatively modern inventions and should not be used to describe the technological and medical capabilities of ancient civilizations. Thus, these instances make us question whether the novel should be categorized as ‘ Mythology-inspired’ fiction or not, as there is no evidence of such methods being used in any of the epics. Another example of how Meluhans were ahead of their time is when Brahaspati, a scientist, says that- ‘I believe in science. It provides a solution and a rationale for everything. And if there is anything that appears like a miracle, the only explanation is that a scientific reason for it has not been discovered as yet.’( Tripathi 2010, p.67) The inclusion of such a character in a mythology inspired novel is perplexing. The reason behind it being that using science or a rational hypothesis to explain a ‘miracle’ or a natural phenomenon was practically unseen at that time. The logic behind such a ‘miracle’ at that time would have probably been associated with anthropomorphic gods, as the shift from revelation to reason happened much later on. That is why such characters are mostly seen in contemporary genres rather than ‘Mythology-inspired’ novels. One must also keep in mind the reception of the reader. The novel would only be considered as mythology by those who are familiar with Indian epics and traditions. To the non-Indian audience, who are not familiar with a mythological character such as Shiva, the novel can be perceived as fantasy fiction. Amish Tripathi does try to provide us with direct translations of Hindi words, and attempts to put them in context for the benefit of the reader- The narrative structure attempts to culturally translate aspects of life in ancient Indian so that a reader’s understanding of the storyline is not compromised. He often includes translations of key terms and ideas through short paraphrasing or contextualization. ( Dawson 2019, p.150-151) Some examples of such translations are- Saying this, she bent down to touch Shiva’s feet in the traditional Indian form of showing respect. ( Tripathi 2010, p.15) Tripathi also took on to explain the theory of Karma, which is a very important theory in Indian philosophy, and how the people who were victims of this were called Vikarma- ‘Vikarma people, my Lord,’ said Nandi sighing deeply, ‘are people who have been punished in this birth for the sins of their previous birth. Hence they have to live this life out with dignity and tolerate their present sufferings with grace. This is the only way they can wipe their karma clean of the sins of their previous births. Vikarma men have their own order of penance and women have a different order.’( Tripathi 2010, p.45) This explanation of the theory of Karma was important as Sita, Shiva’s wife, was also a Vikarma. Thus Tripathi attempts to explain these cultural terms so that the reader can gain the mythological meaning behind it while the plot progresses, and not ponder while trying to understand it in its context. As a conclusion, it is clear that ‘The Immortals of Meluha’ is not only a ‘Mythology-inspired’ fiction novel, but is a culmination of Historical fiction, Fantasy fiction( depends upon reader reception), and also some elements of Thriller. Thus, keeping the model given by Emma Dawson Varughese in mind, ‘The Immortals of Meluha’, which is the first part of the Shiva Trilogy, should be categorized in the fourth approach instead of the second approach. REFERENCES- Tripathi, Amish. 2010. The Immortals of Meluha. Westland: New Delhi Varughese, Dawson. Emma. 2019. Indian Genre Fiction- Pasts and Future Histories. Routledge: New York
THE CULTURAL HEGEMONY OF AMERICAN FAST-FOOD COMPANIES
Over the last century, the entire world has gone through a lot of changes. The colonial powers of the west have certainly been pushed back but there is still only one hegemonic power in the world- The United States of America. Not only do they have political and economic hegemony, they also have cultural hegemony over the rest of the world. One of the key examples that we will look at in this essay are the various American fast food chains like McDonald's, KFC, Dominos, Subway etc. that, as a consequence of globalization, have spread out to thousands of outlets as a chain all over the world. In this essay, we will look at the impact of these American fast-food companies on the rest of the world. McDonaldization is a term that was used by George Ritzer in his book ‘McDonaldization of Society’. George Ritzer defined McDonaldization as “the process by which the principles of the fast-food restaurant are coming to dominate more and more sectors of American society as well as the rest of the world.”(Ritzer 2010, p.4). We will continue to encounter this term and its characteristics throughout the essay. The image at Appendix 1 is from an advertisement of McDonald's in China. If we look at the image we can see how the burger itself takes up around half of the picture itself. This is obviously a reference to the caption itself ‘MEGA MAC’. One of the key characteristics of McDonaldization which was given by George Ritzer was Calculability or quantity rather than quality. This is the key when we try to understand how fast food chains work. That is because all fast food chains prioritize quantity over quality as they have to produce these food items daily by the thousands and the larger quality of the food that they produce, the cheaper it is for them. Also, it is much easier to try to assess the quantity of the food rather than the quality of the food. That is why whenever the image of the food is shown in either menus or advertisements, they are shown to tout the quantity rather than the quality. As we can see from the image at Appendix 1, the previous statement is also relevant here as the quantity of the product(“the MEGA MAC”), rather than the quality of the product (it is not the “GOOD MAC” or the “DELICIOUS MAC”) is emphasized. Also from the image, we get to see that the quality of the burger looks to be something that would have come out of a gourmet restaurant but this is, in fact, a technique that is used by almost all fast food chains so that their product would look more appealing to the public. The common saying of ‘What you see is what you get’ does not apply when we talk of fast-food restaurants. The actual burger is mass produced by the thousand and is later frozen and would probably never look or taste like the burger that is actually shown in the image at Appendix 1. When it comes to food we also have the notion of ‘Bigger is better’ and these sorts of images(ref Appendix 1) do tempt us. Also “People can quantify things and feel that they are getting a lot of food for what appears to be a nominal sum of money”(Ritzer 2008, p.14). This is again relevant here as in the image above we can see how on the left-hand side of the ‘ MEGA MAC’, there are also options for a combo meal which would imply that the customer would get two or more products at a lesser price if he buys them together in relation to buying them separately. The discounted offer could again possibly change the mind of the customer and he himself, due to his greed, might buy something more than he wanted as he thought that it was a real bargain. Advertisements such as the image in Appendix 1 play a very key role in how fast-food chains attract customers. If we look closely at the image, we can see that the two main colors used here are red and yellow. These two colors are used by many top fast food chains because these two colors play a very important role when it comes to attracting people.When we see the color red, it automatically triggers hunger and appetite. This is why we can see how the background of this advertisement is red and also how KFC uses the color red in most of its advertising, and even its logo. The color yellow gives us the feeling of friendliness and happiness. The color yellow is also the most visible color in daylight. That is why arches of McDonald's are yellow and can be spotted from far away. Another important characteristic of McDonaldization is Efficiency. Efficiency or “The optimum method for getting from one point to another”(Ritzer 2008, p.13). In this case, that endpoint is food. As previously mentioned, fast-food chains prioritize quantity over quality. This also includes the time it would take for one either to go to one of the chains of fast food restaurants or to get home delivery instead.Thus, in the image at Appendix 2, which is from Kenya, we can see the caption ‘30 minutes- between you and pizza’.For a family who has two wage earners, cooking elaborate meals would be a hard task as both of them have to work and cooking from scratch takes quite a long time, which they may not always have. In such a situation they might agree that rather than to wait for a couple of hours and cook a meal, it would be better if they would get some pizza within 30 minutes. The other caption of ‘free delivery’ if not delivered within that time frame might also be tempting for a few to try their luck for some free food. Another caption which is below the man on the scooter reads Minimum order of KES 1000”, with KES being Kenyan shilling, the currency of Kenya. Dominos also have a minimum order value for home delivery. This again plays to the advantage of the fast food chain as now the customers have no choice but to order a particular amount in order to get home delivery even though they don’t desire so much food. As previously mentioned one the reason why Dominos have the ability to deliver any pizza within 30 minutes is that mostly all of the food items on the menu are already mass produced and frozen. The food is required to be only warmed up and served hot. The image in Appendix 3 is a McDonald's menu from India. From the menu, we can see how McDonald's itself has gone through a cultural shift when it is globalized. Through this menu, we can see how there is now a fusion of cultures, which incorporates traditional Indian culinary products and McDonald’s western menu of burgers and fries. One of the reasons for this is the differences in traditions. The traditional American cheeseburger contains beef, which would not be culturally appropriate to be made in an Indian McDonald, as in India the majority of the population worship cows and sees them as sacred. Therefore, for McDonald's to be successful in a place like India, some changes had to be made. For example, as we can see from the image at Appendix 3, the iconic McDonald ‘Big Mac’ which was made from beef is replaced by ‘Maharaja Mac’ which is now made from chicken. That is not the only change that was made in the menu as now there were many items in the menu that had a part of the Indian culinary tradition in them, such as, the ‘McSpicy Paneer’ (Appendix 3) and the ‘Masala Grill Chicken meal’(Appendix 3). Another advantage of doing this is that they grab the attention of the local public. The best way to get the public interested is to give them something that they are familiar with, or something that they have been eating all their life. In this case, the terms ‘paneer’, ‘masala’ or ‘maharaja’ are something that the locals are familiar with and can relate to. Thus, the canny fast-food chain combines its secret recipes with Indian spices, and there, you have the Indian McDonald. If we look closely at the main caption on the image in Appendix 3, it reads ‘EXTRA VALUE MEALS’. As mentioned before, fast food chains always prefer quantity over quality and if the customer thinks that he is getting a lot of food at a substantially lesser price, then he would buy it. We can also see from the image (Appendix 3) that most of the picture has been divided into eight boxes and in each of those boxes you have an option of an ‘extra value meal’. There is also a variety in it as it contains non-vegetarian, vegetarian and fish meals, in an attempt to attract people of all food preferences. In each of the slots, we can see that there is either the main burger or wrap and also a large glass of coke and some French fries beside it in an attempt to show that it is a combo meal. Below the price of the meal is written how much money a customer will save if he purchases that combo meal. This would make the customer think that he will actually be saving money. So even if the customer wants only a burger and fries, or a burger and coke, he might see the value meal and also the money he might save and that might potentially change his mind towards buying that meal. Also, on the top left corner, another offer is given that you can upgrade your coke and fries for just 25 rupees to a large one. Continuing on my earlier argument of ‘Bigger is better’, this image also portrays the same qualities that we have seen earlier in the first image. The name of the wraps in the image (Appendix 3) say ‘BigSpicy Chicken wrap’, instead of just a ‘Spicy Chicken Wrap’ which would also have sufficed. We also see how many times either Dominos, McDonald or KFC offer limited time offer deals or bring on new seasonal food items. Most of the customers will get excited by these offers as most of them have ‘This is a once in a lifetime offer so I must buy it’ or that ‘This food item won't be here forever, so I must try it’ mentality. To the second part of the main question, as to whether these fast food chains subvert, the answer is yes. Fast food chains have influenced our society in many ways. Firstly, it affects the economy. Due to the popular demand of fast food, “Potato growing and processing, cattle ranching, chicken raising and meat slaughtering & processing have all had to McDonaldize their operations, leading to dramatic increase in production”(Ritzer 2010, p. 13). The resources put into McDonaldization of their operations could have definitely been put to better use if used wisely. Also due to the increase in popularity of fast food, the sales of local restaurants and vendors, who sell traditional food, also gets affected. The internal institution of social ethics within a family or a group also gets affected. The ethics of ‘eating healthy’ has been affected because of fast-food. The advertisements are shown to promote fast food chains, particularly target children. Most fast food is junk food and is not healthy. Thus, due to eating fast-food, the obesity levels in children are increasing year after year. For this, the fault is also of parents as most of the times they are looking for ways to feed the entire family without a lot of effort, especially when there are two wage earners in a family. The above examples amply demonstrate how the hegemonial canny and cunning strategies employed by American fast-food giants subvert the cultural sensibilities of vulnerable youngsters in their target markets and lure them into eating unhealthy junk food. REFERENCES- 1. Ritzer, George, ed. 2010. McDonaldization: The Reader. California: Pine Forge Press 2. Ritzer, George. 2008. The McDonaldization of Society 5. California: Pine Forge Press